For more than seven centuries, conclaves have been one of the most eloquent expressions of the link between divine Providence and human freedom in the life of the Church. Throughout history, these solemn meetings of cardinal electors have served to designate the Successor of Peter, with all the spiritual, pastoral, and historical weight that such an election entails. Beyond the symbol of the white smoke, each conclave has responded to the specific challenges of its time, keeping alive Christ’s promise: “I am with you always, until the end of the age” (Mt 28:20).

What is a conclave?

The term conclave (from the Latin cum clave, “with a key”) refers to the strict seclusion of cardinals during the election of a new pope. This isolation seeks to guarantee freedom to vote, avoiding outside interference. Although the system has evolved, the essence remains: to discern, under the action of the Holy Spirit, who should guide the universal Church as the Successor of Peter.

The Birth of the Modern Conclave: Viterbo, 1268–1271

The history of conclaves, as we know them, begins with a crisis. Upon the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268, the cardinals met in Viterbo. But almost three years passed without reaching a consensus. The outraged city decided to act: the doors were closed, the roof of the bishop’s palace was removed, and food was reduced to bread and water.

Finally, in 1271, Teobaldo Visconti, who was not even a cardinal, was elected. He took the name Gregory X. As Pope, he convened the Second Council of Lyon (1274), where he officially instituted the conclave procedure in the Constitution Ubi Periculum. From then on, the conclave became the norm every time a new pontiff was elected.

Emblematic Conclaves Throughout the Centuries

Over more than 700 years, the Church has held dozens of conclaves. Some took place amidst intense political tensions; others in times of great holiness; all, without exception, under the gaze of God. Each conclave reflects its time and, at the same time, speaks to the mystery of a Church that is both human and divine, always guided by the promise of Christ.

The Conclave of 1378: The Beginning of the Great Western Schism

The death of Pope Gregory XI, the last pontiff to reside in Avignon, ushered in a dramatic period for the Church. After the papal seat was moved to Rome, the Roman people pressured for an Italian pope. Faced with popular unrest, the cardinals, mostly French, quickly elected Bartolomeo Prignano, archbishop of Bari, who took the name Urban VI.

However, his authoritarian temperament and the tensions that arose in the first months of his pontificate led several cardinals to leave Rome and, citing coercion, elect another pope, Clement VII, who established his seat in Avignon. This led to an ecclesial split with two (and later three) simultaneous popes, backed by various European political powers. The schism lasted almost 40 years and was not a simple human error, but a deep wound in the unity of the Church.

This period demonstrated that even in confusion and sin, the Holy Spirit does not abandon the Church. It was finally the Council of Constance (1414–1418) that restored unity by electing Pope Martin V, thus closing this painful period.

The Conclave of 1492: Power, Politics, and the Need for Reform

Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia was elected Pope as Alexander VI. His election reflected an era in which political and family interests significantly influenced ecclesiastical government. Criticism of nepotism and corruption was frequent. This conclave has gone down in history as one of the most “earthly,” and its figure as a symbol of a Church in need of conversion.

However, it is important to remember that even popes whose moral lives are questionable do not affect the validity of their election, nor do they destroy the essential mission of the Church. During those Renaissance times, great saints, mystics, and reformers also flourished, paving the way for the changes to come. Thus, God writes straight, even with crooked lines.

The Conclave of 1846: Toward a More Spiritual Church

The election of Blessed Pius IX marked the beginning of a new era. He was a young Pope, with a profound vision of the faith, and his pontificate coincided with a turbulent century: liberal revolutions, nationalism, and the progressive loss of temporal power of the papacy. Amid these changes, Pius IX fostered renewed confidence in the spiritual role of the Pope: he proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate Conception and convened the First Vatican Council (1869–1870), which defined papal infallibility in matters of faith and morals.

The long duration of his pontificate (more than three decades) provided stability and allowed the Church to prepare for a future where it would no longer have political power, but would have a stronger moral influence than ever before. The conclave that elected him was, in this sense, a threshold between the Church of Christendom and the Church of the modern world.

The Conclave of 1903: The End of the Emperors’ “Veto”

This conclave is remembered for the intervention of the Austro-Hungarian emperor, who sought to exercise his right of jus exclusivae (right of veto) against Cardinal Mariano Rampolla, Secretary of State to Leo XIII. Although Rampolla obtained a high number of votes, the imperial veto prevailed, and the cardinals elected Cardinal Giuseppe Sarto, who took the name of Saint Pius X.

One of his first acts was to permanently abolish this prerogative of the states. His election marked the beginning of a new era in which the Church definitively disengaged itself from political interference in the election of the Pope. Saint Pius X was a pontiff of profound interior life, a promoter of frequent communion, a reformer of the liturgy, and a great defender of doctrine against the errors of modernism.

The 1958 Conclave: The “Good Pope”

When Pius XII died, the world expected a Pope who would simply continue his diplomatic and doctrinal line. However, the Holy Spirit surprised everyone by choosing Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli, an elderly, good-natured cardinal, little known outside of Italy. He took the name John XXIII.

Just three months after his election, he convened a new ecumenical council: Vatican II. His election showed that there are no “transitional Popes” for God. Sometimes, the Spirit chooses the most unexpected to carry out the greatest tasks. With humility, joy, and confidence, John XXIII opened the Church to dialogue with the modern world, without renouncing its identity.

The Year of Two Popes: 1978

This unusual year witnessed two conclaves. In August, the cardinals elected the Patriarch of Venice, Albino Luciani, John Paul I. His simplicity, warmth, and smile conquered the world, but his pontificate lasted only 33 days. He died suddenly, leaving a trail of tenderness and holiness.

In October of that same year, the cardinals met again. Against all odds, the Polish cardinal Karol Wojtyła, Saint John Paul II, was elected. His election was historic: the first non-Italian pope in over 450 years, a philosopher, athlete, actor, and tireless pastor. For 26 years, he traveled the world, confronted communism, promoted the dignity of the person, promoted World Youth Days, and left an indelible mark on contemporary history.

The 2013 Conclave: A New Stage of Mercy

When Benedict XVI announced his resignation for reasons of health and conscience, the Church experienced a moment of astonishment and admiration. His gesture opened the doors to a new conclave in which the Argentine Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio, the first Latin American Pope, the first Jesuit, and the first Francis, was elected.

Francis’s pontificate has been marked by a constant call to mercy, closeness to the poor, the reform of ecclesial structures, and the promotion of an “outgoing Church.” With clear language, simple gestures, and a focus on the pure Gospel, he sought to remind us that the Church is not a spiritual elite, but a field hospital that welcomes, heals, and accompanies.

His election, like all others, was the fruit of a human and spiritual process, in which prayer, mutual listening, and discernment guided the cardinals toward a figure who knew how to shepherd the Church in a global, fragmented time, yet in need of hope.

A spiritual election, not just an institutional one

Although it is a concrete election, the conclave is above all a spiritual act. The cardinals celebrate the Mass Pro eligendo Pontifice, listen to a meditation on their duties, take an oath of secrecy, and enter the Sistine Chapel for the vote, in a climate of recollection and prayer.

The elected cardinal freely accepts, chooses his name, and is presented to the world from the balcony of St. Peter’s with the famous Habemus Papam. At that moment, millions of Catholics pray for their new pastor, in communion with the entire Church.

What do conclaves teach us?

Conclaves remind us that the Church, although inhabited by men with their limitations, is not governed solely by human strategies. Christ sustains her and the Spirit guides her. This has been the case from Peter to today. The history of conclaves is the history of a fidelity that spans the centuries, adapting without betraying itself, renewing itself without losing its soul.

As Benedict XVI said, the Spirit does not dictate names, but acts in those who open themselves to Him. Therefore, rather than waiting for the “best,” the Church is willing to recognize the one God has chosen for that moment. And that trust is the silent miracle that accompanies every papal election.

Alberto Ramírez, CEO of Exaudi

Article published in La Razón, May 8, 2025